The Use of Cell Phones and Digital Screens in Two 2-Year-Old Infants: Intervention from a Historical-Cultural Perspective

Currently, the excessive use of mobile media such as cell phones, iPads, and interactive displays is integrated inside and outside the home, becoming part of everyday life. While a few years ago, in different countries like the U.S., the use of this technology involved preschool children aged 4 and older, now all over the world we see infants as young as 4 months old or younger using these devices as true "digital natives" (García & Dias de Carvalho, 2022; Radesky & Christiakis, 2016). Therefore, it is considered that children born in the era of digital culture are prepared to face it, as if they had this ability "integrated" from birth or that evolution itself has changed the way of processing information, as well as interacting in society, which enables children's manipulation of virtual media and their preference to use these instead of traditional toys and everyday objects. In this regard, researchers, such as Epstein et al. (2008), have found in young children a relationship of need with an overuse of computers and "smart" screens. This is worrying because when infants use these types of electronic devices for long periods of time, most of them present numerous problems including difficulties in relating to others, poor language development (Shakya & Christakis, 2017), less control of emotions, problems paying attention, sleep problems, motor skills, and problems with social and affective relationships (Teichert, 2020).

Asikainen et al. (2021), studied children aged 18 to 24 months who excessively used iPads, cell phones, and interactive screens, and found poor language development, as vocabulary had been reduced to 20 or fewer words. The children pointed to what they wanted instead of requesting it with words and, when they did, they showed problems articulating those words. In addition, they used isolated words instead of forming phrases and sentences. This led these researchers to deduce that children under 30 months could imitate movement or sign language, but could not learn new words. They also showed problems with tonality when speaking too loudly or too quietly because parent-child interactions were interrupted by phones, showing less sensitivity to the verbal and non-verbal needs of infants (Kildare & Middlemiss, 2017).

Skalická (2019) and McDaniel (2021), when working with children aged 4 and 6, observed the constant use of cell phones and iPads by caregivers who also offered these children the chance to use the caregivers own phones or iPad, noting that these infants had difficulties in controlling their emotions. Specifically, they threw tantrums more frequently, screamed or cried uncontrollably when caregivers tried to remove these devices, showing the impossibility of establishing positive emotional bonds.

Neira et al., (2022) reported that excessive use of screens causes a setback in the maturation of voluntary attention. They found that children’s general field of vision and hearing is reduced as they focus only on light and sound in a reduced way on the screen of their digital device. Similarly, there is a suggestion that the use of the small screen gives an alternation in the focus of attention, with the child capturing much information only superficially. This in turn negatively affects retention, because the child gets used to perceiving many stimuli in a short period of time without reflection and without understanding it. Thus their attention cannot focus on a large space or in a certain time (Dadson et al., 2020; Mendieta, 2017; Suggate & Martzog, 2020). All of the above negatively influences the development of imagination and adequate motivation for social interaction (Reus & Mosley, 2019).

Some researchers report sleep problems in children who use virtual technologies. Children aged 4 months to 5 years who frequently or prolongedly use touchscreens have reported problems falling asleep or falling asleep, with fragmented sleep, nightmares, and decreased sleep quality and quantity. All researchers agree that bright light, and especially the blue light from screens, is the cause of this problem. This is because the brain classifies screen light as daylight, suppressing melatonin levels. This affects the circadian rhythm, elevating arousal levels, which in turn increase nocturnal alertness and reduce REM sleep time (Axelsson et al., 2022; Li et al., 2020; Paulich et al., 2021).

Regarding motor and social skills, Martzog (2022) found in a study conducted with 141 children that prolonged use of touchscreen devices can lead to problems with fine and gross motor skills, a fundamental prerequisite for learning and cognition. This can also be expressed in difficulties jumping, running, and properly grasping objects. Furthermore, there was poverty in their socio-affective relationships, because the minors did not ask for things but rather snatched them away. They did not appreciate the actions of adults, nor did they request attention in an affective way, which could be related to a lack of empathy that is not found in an artifact.

Obesity is another negative characteristic of children's development due to the use of technology. Sedentary lifestyles and increased body mass index have been found in a large majority of infants and preschoolers exposed to prolonged screen time on cell phones, iPads, and computers. Their lives lack an interactive or active physical component that favors walking and running skills. Another factor is that these types of devices offer excessive food advertising and decreased attention to satiety signals (Krynski et al., 2017; Madigan et al., 2019).

When reviewing various studies that reveal such prevalent problems with children, it is necessary to highlight the techniques used to address these types of issues and their possible resolutions or alternatives. Therefore, the objective of this article is to present the case of two 2-year-old children who attended a university clinic at UNAM in Mexico City. Both children did not speak correctly and did not pay attention to their families when they spoke. Furthermore, both children used cell phones to calm their frustration. This intervention is based on a historical-cultural approach, offering a perspective of positive modification of communication processes between children and adults from an early age.

Methods

Participants

The study participants are two 2-year-old boys from the urban sociocultural environment of Mexico City. The parents of both children reported significant delays in language acquisition and requested psychological support. Both children were born in 2019 and spent their first birthday under family confinement due to the global pandemic caused by COVID-19.

Case 1

K, a child, came to the psychological consultation at the age of 2.7 years. His parents requested the intervention because the child did not pronounce words correctly. He would interrupt words when hearing the others speaking and not use sentences such as: "I want water, can I have some milk?" He also took his mother's cell phone away to watch videos.

He was born in 2019. He had no problems during or after birth, with an Apgar score of 9/9. During the lockdown, the father worked, and the mother stayed home to care for the child. She said that her son was her life, that she lived only for him, and that he gave her direction in her life as a mother. For this reason, she entertained the child with anything he asked for, such as his cell phone. When we began working with K., the child didn't follow anyone's instructions; he did what he wanted, didn't speak, but understood what he was told, for example, "You can't go on the slide because it's wet." So, he approached the slide and touched it to feel the water. He then sat down on the bottom of the seesaw, and since he didn't move, and his mother didn't do anything to make him move, the boy stood up and went straight to hit her. He threw himself on the floor and began to cry. His angry mother immediately gave him the cell phone. The boy stopped crying, took the phone, and ignored any other stimulus or people. At mealtimes, his mother would sit him in front of the television, and if he didn't eat, she would feed him. At bedtime, the boy was given the cell phone so he could watch cartoons and programs where the actors went to bed.

Case 2

The child, L, came to the clinic at the age of 2.5 years. He was referred by a nursery teacher, whose opinion was that the child wasn't speaking enough for his age.

He was born in 2019. No problems were reported at birth, and he had an Apgar score of 9/9. During the lockdown, the parents worked from home for an online solution center, each separately. While working, they gave the child several toys and a cell phone for entertainment. The mother said she always had the child within sight. When work began with L, he was very eager to discover everything in the clinic. He didn't speak, only pointing. When he was given instructions or shown how to do things, he became upset and no longer wanted to be there. When he was upset or the mother was desperate with the child, she gave him her cell phone to calm him down. The child looked for videos and paid no attention to anyone around him. At mealtimes, he didn't want to sit at the table or eat with a spoon. He asked to be fed or to eat things he could put in his mouth while continuing to look at his cell phone. At bedtime, the child would do so if he was given the cell phone to sleep with.

Procedure

Initial Assessment

After both mothers signed informed consent, the assessment of both children began in two 50-minute sessions, using the Portage Goals checklist, as it is based on normal growth and development patterns. This guide can be used with children from birth to 6 years of age, assessing self-help, motor development, language, socialization, and cognition. It established two observational assessment processes: a pretest to determine the Zone of Current Development (ZCD), and a posttest to demonstrate the children's progress.

The results of both children determined that their behaviors corresponded to the age of 1 year. This was because in socialization they could not play with another child because they were not allowed to be with them, they screamed if they saw another child or were running with their mother. They did not play with a doll and even when one was given to them they left it ignoring it. In language they could not say five different words They did not obey two related commands such as “put the ball on the floor and kick it” They did not point to familiar objects such as a glass, a spoon, or a dog. They did not say their name. As to self-help, they could not eat alone with a spoon nor did they try to grab it. Neither could they lift a glass to drink water. They were unable to wet their face imitating an adult. Regarding cognition, they did not try to take objects out of a container one by one, nor could they point to parts of their body such as face, feet, or hands. As to motor development, they did not climb the stairs alone preferring to move away or shout for their mother to come to their help. They did not know how to roll a ball. They did not push each other around in ride-on carts, nor did they attempt to build a tower with three blocks.

Intervention

Based on the results obtained, an intervention program was implemented over three months, consisting of twenty-four 50-minute sessions, twice a week. The program was based on the concept of the zone of proximal development, which involves constant collaboration between the adult and the child in all the proposed tasks, showing them by example how to do them. In addition, the adults praised and showed affection to the child when they did the activity well. When one of the children did not do the activity well, the mother showed them how to do it while commenting on it. The program tasks were chosen based on Vygotsky and Elkonin's concept of the periodization of development, which involves the acquisition of practical actions with everyday objects and object play (Baltazar, 2019; Solovieva et al., 2018; Nikolaeva et al., 2023).

To teach them how to eat, drink water, wash their faces, and take off their sweaters, we told them the story of "Goldilocks and the Three Bears." We used puppets for each character, and a theatre made with a box and a curtain, which held their attention for three minutes. At the end of the story, we told them that we would be like one of the characters in the story, in this case Goldilocks. So, as our first activity, we went into the bears' house, the bears having gone out for a walk. The corner of a living room was decorated, containing a preschool table and chairs, plates with cereal and milk, and a spoon by the side. the children were told that like the girl in the story we would eat the cereal, so all the adults took the spoon making slightly exaggerated movements so that the children could see them and try to imitate them, when they did so the mother gave them applause and a kiss telling them that they had done well. When they didn't do it, or couldn't, each mother showed her child, at the same time telling them how to do it. When the cereal was finished, or time was up (10 minutes), the children were told that they would drink a glass of water just like Goldilocks. Each child had to lift a small glass of water and take at least 3 sips by themselves. In the same way they were praised for doing it or they were shown by example, little by little how to do it.

For the next activity, they went to another corner of the room decorated as a bathroom, where there was a tray with water, a bar of soap and a towel. Here the children were told that just like Goldilocks, they would have to wash their face and hands and then dry them with the towel. However, in this part of the activity both children did not want to do the activity even though they were shown how to do it, so their mothers had to help them completely, showing them how their other classmates did it alone.

After 10 minutes, the program continued in another corner of the room – this time decorated like a bedroom. There was an imitation of a bed with a small blanket, the children were told that just like Goldilocks, they would now lie down in bed, but first, they had to take off their sweaters on their own. The mothers told them step by step what they had to do, and when they achieved it they hugged their children and told them that they were proud of them.

Next, in the center of the room, where there were tables and chairs for preschoolers, we asked them to sit down and talked with the children. We asked them what they had done with the spoon, if they had drunk the water, and if they could now put the sweater back on that they had taken off.

Afterwards, we gave them a sheet of paper and crayons and asked them to draw whatever they wanted using the crayons in front of them. Before drawing, the mothers asked the children, "What are you thinking of drawing?" This was done so that the children would generate a memory of what they did and capture it. Although at this age they only make lines that seem meaningless, when we ask them at the end of their drawing, "What did you draw?" the children even gave us some information about one or more lines.

Finally, to close the session, we all sang a farewell song. The mothers were given homework to do at home on the weekends. They were asked to play lottery, play memory games, put together puzzles, and teach the child to wash their hands or face. The purpose was to create family coexistence and teach the child at home to do some self-care activities.

Once a week, our sessions with our two case-study children were also held in conjunction with 20 other children who were also attending the clinic. The age range of these children was between 1 to 6 years old. Their parents also attended.

Two groups of 10 children and their parents were formed to carry out the activities in each group. The goal was for the older children to help the younger ones, for the younger ones to ask for help, and for both to learn from each other. For example, the older children, encouraged by their parents, would ask the younger children for things, or babysit for them. The younger children would ask for help or ask the older children, and the older children would explain, for example, how to swing, climb a slide, or throw balls. The sessions were held throughout the clinic's spaces, including gardens and classrooms.

On another day of the week, we worked with just six children of the same psychological age, in this case between 1 and 2 years old, and their respective parents. The activities took place in a single space in the clinic.

In all sessions, the goal was to cover four novel actions. Each session began with a story to give the child and parent a general idea of what would be done throughout the session and to have the child begin by paying attention to the activity for three minutes. After the story, the child was told that we would pretend to be the protagonist of the story and, as such, would perform some action. His mother would show him how to do it if he couldn't, or congratulate him if he could. After 10 minutes, he was told that he was still pretending to be the protagonist of the story and would perform another action. Again, his mother was present to support or congratulate him.

After having performed four actions in total, feedback continued, where questions were asked to find out if the child had understood what they were supposed to learn. Following his answers, he was given a blank sheet of paper and his mother asked him what he was thinking of drawing. After two minutes, the mother asked him to explain the drawing. It's worth noting that during the first sessions, the children didn't say anything but gradually began to speak up. Finally, the session ended with a farewell song, so the child had a closing routine. Three weekend tasks were also assigned, so the children could spend time with the family, playing games, and teaching them some activities to help with self-care (see Appendix А).

Results

At the end of the 24 sessions and three months of care, the children were assessed again. The same tasks as in the initial assessment were administered during two 50-minute sessions.

The final evaluation data (see Figure 1 and Figure 2) show significant progress in both children. They were now paying attention to stories for more than five minutes. They pointed to objects such as a sweater, a cup, and a backpack when adults asked them to. They made animal sounds such as dogs, cats, and cows. They were able to evoke some sounds such as rain and ambulances. They responded yes or no to questions such as "Do you want milk”? or "Have you finished your drawing"? They put on their own shoes, sweaters, and pants. They picked up a spoon to eat and could say sentences such as "I want milk" or "I don't want water", "Give me bread", or "Thank you". The children were able to build towers with wooden blocks. They drew vertical and horizontal lines and circles. They could hop on one foot in squares, walk in circles, and throw stones at triangles to play "airplane" In this game the child has to jump, either on one or both feet, on the cells drawn on the floor, according to verbal instructions and rules. They built a house for their teddy bears using boxes as blocks, and they decided where their couch, stove, and bed would be. They could take a doll to a slide and push it down it.

L.'s mother decided that her son had learned enough and spoke enough to enroll him in daycare, even though the child still didn't speak enough for a one-year-old, according to the Portage Guide.

K.'s mother decided to continue in the program because she saw that her son was having fun and enjoyed attending. She was also learning to get along better with her son, admitting that she played with him and read him stories at night.

Figure 1. Results of child K. (2.7 years)

Note. The blue column shows the results of the child's first assessment; socialisation is the least developed aspect of the child in this first phase. The gray column shows the expected milestones for ages 1 to 2, according to the Portage Guide. The third column, in orange, shows the child's progress in the third month. We can see that Motor Development is the most impaired in this child's development.

Figure 2. Results of child K. (2.5 years)

Note. The blue column shows the results of the child's first assessment. The gray column shows the expected milestones for ages 1 to 2, according to the Portage Guide. The second orange column shows the child's progress over the past month. This graph shows that language activity is the most impaired in this child's development.

Discussion     

The results of the initial assessment, which allowed determining the degree of children’s attention deficit disorder, are consistent with the literature, which indicates that children with prolonged use of virtual technologies show delays in their psychological development (Madigan et al., 2020; Varadarajan et al., 2021). What was observed in the children in this study was that they did not display the skills expected for 2-year-olds, despite being older than two years old. Their language displayed only a few isolated words with articulation problems, which is consistent with studies that found that young children addicted to digital screens consistently struggle to communicate adequately through language (Baltazar and Escotto, 2023; Yu et al., 2022; Kerai et al. 2022). This is because screens do not involve conversation, guttural movements are not observed, and they are not corrected. Aggressive behaviors were observed, such as hitting the mother to get her to pay attention to him instead of showing communicative initiative, because they had become accustomed to communicating in this way, that is, hitting the other to get her to pay attention to him.

Therefore, the data from the present study shows that these negative behaviors were always provoked by the same adults. For example, it was possible to observe that this behavior was reinforced by the same mothers who, instead of showing the child what to do, immediately handed the cell phone to their child.

Psychological development occurs as the historical-cultural experience provided and organized by the adults around children (Vygotsky, 1995). This is firstly, because the role of the adult is essential from birth, notably the inclusion of the child in positive and empathic emotional affective communication in the first year of life (Baltazar, 2024; Solovieva & Quinanar, 2021; Veraksa & Sheridan, 2018). Secondly the role of the adult in practical object-activity, for in cases of intense use of screens by children, there is always a similar use by their parents or primary caregivers (Campos-García & Solovieva, 2022; De Paula et al., 2023).

Conclusion

The results of the study showed the possibility of intervening in the development of young preschoolers with prolonged use of virtual technologies. Intervention programs should involve parents, addressing the needs of young preschoolers, such as the need for empathy during the implementation of practical and recreational activities under the guidance of their parents.

During the intervention, verbal guidance should be consistent with support through bodily expression, mime, gestures, and objects. The age of two is the appropriate period to ensure adequate intervention with positive results. Future studies should confirm the findings of this study and expand to a broader population of participants in different sociocultural settings. It is important to begin work on disseminating ways of organizing the coexistence of young preschoolers in families and institutions to ensure optimal psychological development of children and avoid the risk of language delays before the start of institutional preschool.

We found that the parents of the children in the cases did not demonstrate a positive initiative to communicate with their children. They did not know how to initiate or maintain it, and they preferred their children to be entertained and cared for by the devices. When the children did not know what to do, they hit the parents, and the parents immediately gave them the cell phone instead of communicating with their child. It can be said that it is a vicious cycle, in which each family member chooses a simpler behavior that requires less communicative and empathetic effort. Similarly, if children have a strong need for screens or cell phones, it is because the parents or primary caregivers have created a codependency on them and use that time instead of giving it to their children.

Recommendations

The use of cell phones, iPads, and smart displays cannot be prohibited for minors, as they are part of our daily lives. What we need to do is teach children how to use them in the presence of an adult who communicates and guides them. The adults should establish the objectives for using the device and explain how to use it, without allowing it to become a device to soothe our loneliness or frustration.

Informed Consent from the Participants’ Legal Guardians

Before participating, the mothers signed the informed consened Consent from the Participants’ Legal Guardianst form, which specified that their data will be always kept confidential and that their names will not be used.

Author Contributions

A. M. B. R. and Yu. S. designed and directed the project, developed the theoretical framework, performed the experiments, performed the analysis, drafted the manuscript and designed the figures. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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