Children’s Engagement in Games and the Development of 21st Century Competencies: A Comparison of Indigenous and Digital Games in Late Childhood

Introduction

In today's technologically advanced world, children are increasingly exposed to digital games, often overshadowing the traditional indigenous games that have been played for generations. Indigenous games hold cultural significance and have historically played a crucial role in children's upbringing. In recent years, the popularity of both indigenous and digital games for children has increased significantly. These games offer distinct experiences that may impact the development of competencies differently. Competencies required to thrive in the twenty-first century are gaining more attention from researchers and practitioners (Chan & Yuen, 2014; Gee, 2007). Twenty-first century competencies are defined by four broad categories (Mahmud & Wong, 2022; Binkley et al., 2014). These categories, and their subdivisions are: 1) Thinking (creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem-solving, decision making, and learning to learn); 2) Working with others (communication, collaboration/teamwork); 3) Facility with tools (information literacy, communications technology literacy); 4) General life competencies (citizenship, life, and career management, personal and social responsibility, cultural awareness).

Apart from the school, church, and other spheres of socialisation where children learn, gaming is a core activity that fosters learning. Children’s engagement in learning environments that foster critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration is pivotal to their career success (Lombardi, 2007). Video games, for example, nurture collaborative leadership in youth (Hewett, 2022). The focus of 21st-century competencies examined in this paper is limited to problem-solving and interpersonal skills.

Problem-solving is a skill that has to be learned because man is not born with it (Shute & Emihovich, 2018; Polya, 1945). It is a four-step process: understand the problem, devise a plan, carry out the plan, and review/extend it (Polya, 1945). Bransford and Stein (1984) provided an integrated collection of problem-solving captured in their IDEAL perspective. Here, each letter indicates a step in a sequential problem-solving process (I-Identify problems and opportunities, D-Define alternative goals, E-explore possible strategies, A-anticipate outcomes and act on strategies; and then L-look back and learn). A simplified model of problem-solving involving the construction of a representation, the search for a solution, the implementation of the solution, and then monitoring of the outcome of the solution was later advanced by Gick (1986). Children develop problem-solving competencies when they are allowed to solve problems at their level. Games represent one of such activities that can leverage problem-solving competences in children as they constantly encounter challenges that must be overcome. Interpersonal competence (Rezvani, Barrett, & Khosravi, 2019) is the ability to interact and communicate with others, to share personal views, to understand the emotions and opinions of others, and to cooperate with others or resolve conflict when it occurs. Another dimension to interpersonal competencies is the ability to communicate thoughts and ideas clearly, listen effectively (to decipher meaning, values, and intentions) and work effectively and respectfully in diverse teams (Partnership for 21^st Century Competencies, 2009). Interpersonal competence has 5 aspects; initiation competence, assertiveness, self-disclosure, emotional support, and managing interpersonal conflict (Buhrmester et al., 1988). It is also a vital skill that children need to thrive in the twenty-first century. Overall, these abilities can emerge in the course of games as they interact with their peers.

Indigenous versus Digital Games

Games are typically structured activities or forms of entertainment that involve one or more participants who engage in a set of rules or objectives. They often have an element of competition, challenge or skill, and can be played for fun, social interaction, education, and even professional purposes. Games can take on many forms including board games, video games, card games, role-playing, puzzles, and many others. This study examines games from two dimensions (indigenous and digital). Indigenous games in the past were an integral part of childhood experiences but the degree of children’s engagement in such games keeps eroding with the rapid advancement in technology. Participation in indigenous games used to be an opportunity where children interact, share, learn, negotiate and solve problems. Zainuddin et al. (2020) study sought to determine the influence of a traditional game (akkasing) on improving the interpersonal competence of peer groups in elementary school children. They used a pre-test and post-test control group and found the game was a significant influence for improving interpersonal competence. Similarly, Louth (2014) found from a qualitative study in Sydney, Australia that playing indigenous games three times a week increases students’ self-esteem, ability to cooperate and work in a team.

Most children's play activities now are dominated by digital media and reduced playing space in cities and villages which retards their engagement in indigenous games (Smith, 2012). This means that they lose the experience of playing and interacting with their peers. Digital based games cannot create social interactions like traditional games (Fang et al., 2016). Traditional games can solve real-life problems related to misunderstanding and disputed behaviour (Sholihah et al., 2020). Flynn et al. (2019) define digital games as playing video games on television with video game consoles, computer games, games on phones and tablets, hand-held video games, augmented reality and virtual reality games found on different platforms. Critical thinking and problem-solving, deemed the most important cognitive competencies needed for the 21st century, can be enhanced by repeated exposure to computer games and other digital media (Day et al., 2001; Ravenscroft & Matheson, 2002). Games that offer a look at current issues and/or provide opportunities for critical thinking are potential avenues to prepare a technically skilled workforce that possesses the ability to think critically and innovatively (Sardone & Devlin-Scherer, 2010). Gentile et al. (2012) study on game playing found that a sample of 3,034 game-playing Singaporean children and adolescents measured over 3 years had attention problems and were impulsive. Those who spent significant time playing video games subsequently had more attention problems, even when earlier attention problems based on sex, age, race, and socio-economic status were statistically controlled. Also, participants of a study that required undergraduate students to identify twenty-first century competencies in digital games found communication and collaboration skill development opportunities in five digital games (Sardone & Devlin-Scherer, 2010). Two studies like the aforementioned have identified competencies that develop in the course of indigenous and digital games. Studies devoted to a comparison of the rate of skill development in indigenous and digital games are still very rare. Comparing the value of indigenous and digital games in nurturing twenty-first century competencies in children is valuable to policy and decision-making towards equipping the young for the future world of work. This study thus compares the exhibition of problem-solving and interpersonal competencies between Dodging (an indigenous game) and Zoomer (a digital game) all commonly played by children in the English-speaking regions of Cameroon.

Theoretical Basis

From a theoretical perspective, Erickson (1987) describes late childhood as a stage of industry versus inferiority which mirrors the nature of the study participants (8 to 12 years old children). Such children are often constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, and achieving (Erickson, 1987). They develop a sense of confidence if they succeed in their industrious endeavours, otherwise a sense of inferiority sets in (Erickson, 1987). Vygotsky (1987) maintains that children are naturally endowed with elementary mental abilities (memory, sensation, attention and perception) that serve as the basis for higher mental functions (like problem-solving) that can only be developed through the influence of social interactions. Both indigenous and digital games are interactive processes where children learn from others and develop higher-order thinking competencies.

In addition to Vygotsky’s perspective, Tchombe (2023) highlights the strength in the mediation, mutuality, and reciprocity that occurs amongst peers in their Zone of Proximal Development as they engage in tasks. Learning is more effective when children interact and support their peers in the process. During games, children engage in social interactions, such as taking turns, sharing resources, negotiating rules, and communicating with others. These interactions foster the development of interpersonal competencies, including communication, cooperation, conflict resolution, and empathy. By playing games with others, children learn how to navigate social situations, work together towards a common goal, and understand the perspectives and feelings of others. In the course of games, children also encounter difficulties that provoke them to think critically, strategise, and seek solutions. Higher-order thinking competencies like self-regulation and problem-solving are intrapersonal processes which Vygotsky (1987) maintains can only be provoked by interpersonal processes. The quality of interactions and cultural tools that a child is exposed to determines their level of higher mental functions.

Problem Statement and Study Aims

Twenty-first century competencies such as interpersonal and problem solving skills are necessary to drive success in every individual, institution/organisation, and society as a whole. These competencies are stronger when they are developed in the early years of life. Leveraging opportunities that will enable children develop twenty-first century competencies is thus vital. Research (Atilla & Halit, 2023; Meihua & Karen, 2016; Kim et al., 2019; Yalçın, 2024) on developing twenty-first century competencies in children has been focused on how different formal school curriculum influence the development of such competencies in learners. The question of how the competencies emerge in children informally in their out-of-school activities like games has not been given due attention. This gap in knowledge can cause childcare stakeholders to minimise children’s engagement in certain play or games. On this basis, the study explores what develops in terms of twenty-first century competencies as children engage informally in games out of school. It further compares the development of such competencies for indigenous and digital games. This study seeks to answer the empirical question whether the nature of interaction, tools, and activities used in indigenous games are better at developing interpersonal and problem-solving competencies than those of digital games.

This study generally aims to compare the development of twenty-first century competencies in indigenous and digital games. Specifically, the study has the following objectives: 1) compare the development of problem-solving competencies amongst children who engage in indigenous and those who engage in digital games and 2) compare the development of interpersonal competencies amongst children who engage in indigenous and those that engage in digital games.

Methods

The study uses a sequential explanatory design where quantitative data was first collected from a sample of 310 children in both rural and urban communities in the Buea municipality in southwest Cameroon. The quantitative survey firstly obtained data on the form of games children commonly play, to identify the degree of engagement of children in the different forms of games (indigenous and digital). Secondly, it was aimed at establishing the most commonly played games for both the indigenous and the digital categories to be used for the intervention and exploratory phase. Based on the findings from the survey, “Dodging” and football emerged as the most commonly played indigenous games in the area of study. “Dodging” is a team based indigenous game where one team attempts to hit the opponent with a tennis ball sized object made of socks and wastepaper while the other team tries to dodge the ball to stay in the competition. With regards to the digital games, Zoomer and PlayStation football emerged as the most commonly played games. These most commonly played games were used for the intervention based on the assumption that the children were already familiar and versed with such. A quasi-experimental post-test only design was used to assess 21st century competencies in four groups of children with similar characteristics underscored in the inclusion criteria. The rationale for the post-test only design was to avoid behaviour modification of participants. Exposure to the tool or test before the intervention could have alerted the behaviour of the children on the competencies set to be measured. The aim was to observe and assess the competencies as the children played in the most natural form, and then do a comparison for the different groups at the end. The experiment was naturalistic as the children were given the opportunity to play the game in a natural space as they usually do.

Description of Area of Study

The study was conducted in the Buea municipality in the southwest of Cameroon. Buea is a semi-urban area and the political capital of Cameroon’s south-west region. In terms of urban design, Buea is comprised of some neighborhoods with closely arranged households without fences, and more secluded neighbourhoods with individual homes enclosed by fences. This has implications on the forms of games that the children commonly engage in, as revealed by the quantitative data. It is very common to see groups of children in the closely knit neighborhoods playing indigenous games, while those in more secluded neighborhoods are often found either playing alone (or with a few siblings) in their fenced compounds, or glued to TV screens or other gadgets playing games or watching cartoons. The Anglophone Crisis, ongoing since 2016, has created a deep sense of insecurity in Buea. The serenity and legendary hospitality that used to exist in the municipality has been eroded by the constant kidnappings, theft and looting of public spaces that now characterises the area. These have implications for children’s play as the freedom and trust that existed among the people has broken down, and become questionable. Parents nowadays are very fearful about their children’s outdoor interaction and play with others. As a result, most children in the municipality are now restricted from outdoor play due to safety and security concerns

Population and Sample Participants

A sample of 51 primary school pupils from 5^th and 6^th classes who were attending holiday classes in the Buea municipality were purposively selected and randomly assigned to four groups for the four games. The criteria for inclusion constituted: 1) the age range (8 to 12 years); 2) experience in all the four games (Dodging and football for indigenous & Zoomer and digital football for digital). These were the games identified from the children’s choices on most commonly played games in the digital and indigenous sections listed in the survey questionnaire items. In all cases, informed parental consent was obtained for the children involved in the study. This was to control some extraneous variables such as experience that could influence participation in the games. The study uses a sequential explanatory design where quantitative data was first collected from a sample of 310 children from both rural and urban communities in Buea. The quantitative survey was aimed firstly at obtaining data on the form of games children commonly play to identify their degree of engagement in the different forms of games (indigenous and digital). Secondly, it was aimed at identifying the most commonly played games for both the indigenous and the digital categories to be used for the exploratory phase. Dodging and football for indigenous and Zoomer and PlayStation football for digital emerged as the most commonly played games thus used for the intervention. A quasi-experimental post-test only design was used on four groups of children with similar characteristics.

Intervention

The intervention lasted for 4 weeks with 8 sessions (4 for indigenous games - Dodging and football and 4 for digital games - Zoomer and PlayStation football). Each session lasted between 1 – 2 hours). For the indigenous games, a scenario was created including some of the tools such as the play field and balls needed for the children to play. The children were placed at the scene and asked to play. They were left to organise themselves, sort out their teams and play as they normally do in the neighborhood. For each game session, the team played twice taking turns for both teams. The children were left to coordinate, manage, and resolve their issues in the course of the game. For the digital games, the children were taken to a games centre where they played Zoomer and digital football. They were given time and space to play in turns.

Data Collection Procedures, Instruments and Data Analysis

As the children engaged in the games, they were closely observed to identify elements of problem-solving and interpersonal competencies being exhibited. Six postgraduate students were trained and used as research assistants in the data collection process. They were all engaged in the observation. Each observer had a maximum of 2 children to observe, identifiable from the colour of the clothes they were wearing. Each observer closely watched their children they were assigned to, and ticked the strength of the behaviour noted on the observation checklist. Observers also provided a detailed description of the practical situation justifying the rating for every item ticked for a child being observed. At the end of the intervention, a post-test was administered to the children in all four groups to assess the degree of problem-solving and interpersonal competencies they exhibited in the course of the games. After the post-test, a total of 16 children were interviewed (4 from each game) to get in-depth information on how they interacted with peers and others in the course of the game and how they solved the problems they faced.

The study made use of questionnaires, an observation checklist, and an interview guide. The first questionnaire was used to get survey data on the kinds of games and preference for the most commonly played games. The questionnaire had a section for games where a good number of digital and indigenous games were listed including a space to list others that were not mentioned in the list. The children had to select and rank them in other of preference. A pilot test was done to ensure the reliability and validity of the tool. The second questionnaire was the post-test and constituted two sections: the first, for type of game and duration of play and the second, a Likert scale with items on problem solving and interpersonal competencies rated as; Sometimes, All the time, Rarely and Never. The tool was adopted from Bruder’s (2000) Play Tools observation guide, adapted and used to indicate and describe practically the competencies exhibited in the course of the game. The indicators of problem-solving competencies were exploration, curiosity, trying alternative solutions and moving on. Participants were expected to respond to statements like; “I encounter difficulties in the course of the game”, “in the course of the difficult situation, I try to find out what the cause is, I look for a way to solve the problem”, and “I try out different ways to solve the problem and I solve the problem and continue playing my game”. For interpersonal competencies, the indicators included listening, communication, sharing, empathy, peace, reconciliation, hugs, concern for others, collaboration and forgiveness. The statements participants had to respond to were: “I play with others”, “I listen to my playmates”, “I respect game rules”, “I talk with and agree with my play mates”, and “I play even when it is not my turn and I support my team”. The items in the observation guide had a rating scale (1 – 5) alongside to indicate the intensity of the behaviour and another section to describe the trait of behaviour exhibited. Each item was rated on a five-point scale ranging from never performs or demonstrating the behaviour (1) to competently performing the behaviour (5).

An interview guide with questions that triggered in-depth responses on game rules, relating with others, challenges faced in the course of the games, and how such were managed was used to obtain in-depth information on the competencies exhibited in each of the games.

The data collected for the study were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Mean and standard deviation was used for the descriptive statistics while the independent sample t-test was used for inferential analysis. The entire analysis was facilitated using SPSS version 27. Given the fact that the data appeared approximately normally distributed, the independent sample t-test was an ideal tool to employ. Also, the t-test was used to compare the mean score of interpersonal and problem-solving competencies between the two groups of children (indigenous games and digital games). With the independent sample t test, it was possible to compare mean scores between the two groups of children and to know better which group of children (indigenous games or digital games) had higher mean scores in terms of problem-solving competencies and interpersonal competencies. On the other hand, the qualitative data derived from the interview session with few children were analysed using the narrative approach. However, before the data were analysed, they were transcribed into textual data. The findings derived from the narrative analysis of the qualitative data were used to support the findings derived from the quantitative data. Finally, all inferential statistics were presented at 95% confidence interval using tables.

Results

The findings reveal that children develop and exhibit problem-solving and interpersonal competencies in both indigenous and digital games but the competencies in comparison are developed more in indigenous than in digital games as documented in the tables below.

Problem-solving in Indigenous versus Digital Games

Table 1

Mean score for problem-solving in indigenous versus digital games

The mean score of problem-solving competencies in indigenous games was 13.70 ± 0.353 which is higher than the mean score of problem-solving competencies in digital games 11.83 ± 0.384. This implies that children develop and exhibit problem-solving competencies in both indigenous and digital games but the competencies in comparison were developed more in indigenous than in digital games.

Table 2

Comparing for significant difference in problem-solving competencies between indigenous versus digital games

Statistically, assuming equal variance, at degree of freedom 49 at 95% confidence interval, t-critical value is 2.021 less than the t-calculated value of 3.590 implying that the exhibition of problem-solving competencies for children exposed to indigenous games was significantly higher than for children in digital games. To be explicit, during indigenous games, children face challenges such as cheating, fighting, and ‘bad sportsmanship’. As they play, they exhibit problem solving competencies as they address these issues. Cheating was the most common problem faced in the course of indigenous games. Cheating from the findings refer to a situation where someone contravenes the rules of the game such as not taking turns, refusing to accept defeat, supporting a partner at a wrong time and telling lies. Children explored alternative strategies to solve the problems they encountered. A typical situation was captured in the voices of some children who played Dodging as follows:

“When someone cheats, I come close to check what actually happened.  For example if someone was hit by the ball during Dodging and refuses, I ask the people who were very close to say what they saw, if the argument is still not resolved, I organise for voting and we all agree on the decision voted by the majority and continue our game”

“In case of disorder where people don’t take turns in playing, we stop the game and create order by coming together to examine the situation, reiterate the rules and remind everyone to play only when it is their turn. Those who are not ready to respect the rules are asked to leave the game.” 

“We discuss, identify the problem, caution everyone who caused it, agree on what is right and continue playing happily”

On the other hand, for digital games, cheating still emerged as a major challenge for children involved. However, unlike the indigenous games where the children had a big free space to interact and sort their issues as teams, handling cheating in digital games was secluded in a small digital space and limited to just a few children. The children also explored and used different strategies to manage cheating. This is reflected in the voices of some children who played Zoomer who said:

“The machine cheats as it brings in many coloured balls and increases the speed which is against the rules when I was about to finish the level. We got angry and insulted the machine.  After insulting the machine, we played with a second life and won. We strategise and act faster so as to quickly shoot the ball before time out.”

Another child who played digital football said:

“In a case of bad game or handball, we report to the referee who stops, cautions the one responsible and sometimes presents a red card.”

Interpersonal Competencies for Indigenous versus Digital Games

Interpersonal competencies exhibited in indigenous games appear much higher than that for digital games as reflected in the tables below.

Table 3

Mean score for interpersonal skill between indigenous versus digital games

Findings showed that the mean score for interpersonal competencies in indigenous games is 20.00 ± 0.200 which is almost two times higher when compared to the mean score of interpersonal competencies in digital games 11.08±1.113. 

Table 4

Comparing for significant difference in interpersonal competencies between indigenous versus digital games

References

Atilla, D. & Halit, K. (2023). The effects of the 21st century skills curriculum on the development of students’ creative thinking skills. Thinking skills and Creativity, 47, 101229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101229

Binkley, N., Sempos, C.T. & Vitamin D Standardization Program (VDSP). (2014). Standardizing vitamin D assays: the way forward. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 29(8), 1709-1714. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.2252

Bransford, J.D., & Stein, B.S. (1984). The IDEAL problem solver. A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativity. Freeman.

Bruder, M.B. (2000). The Individual Family Service PIan (IFSP). ERIC Digest #E605. Retrieved at https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED449634.pdf

Buhrmester, D., Furman, W., Wittenberg, M.T., & Reis, H.T. (1988). Five domains of interpersonal competence in peer relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(6), 991–1008. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.6.99

Chan, S. & Yuen, M. (2014). Personal and Environmental Factors Affecting Teachers’ Creativity-Fostering Practices in Hong Kong. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 12, 69-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2014.02.003

Day, E.A., Arthur, W., Jr., & Gettman, D. (2001). Knowledge structures and the acquisition of a complex skill, Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(5), 1022–1033. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.5.1022

Erikson, E. (1982). The life cycle completed. Norton & Company.

Fang, Y.M., Chen, K.M., & Huang, Y.J. (2016). Emotional reactions of different interface formats: Comparing digital and traditional board games. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 8(3), 1687814016641902. https://doi.org/10.1177/1687814016641902

Flynn, R.M., Richert, R.A. and Wartella, E. (2019). Play in a Digital World: How Interactive Digital Games Shape the Lives of Children. American Journal of Play, 12(1), 54–73. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2020-24383-003

Gee, J.P. (2007). Good Video Games and Good Learning: Collected Essays on Video Games, Learning and Literacy. Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-1-4539-1162-4

Gentile, D.A., Swing, E.L., Lim, C.G., & Khoo, A. (2012). Video game playing, attention problems, and impulsiveness: Evidence of bidirectional causality. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026969

Gick, M.L. (1986). Problem-solving strategies. Educational Psychologist, 21(1–2), 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.1986.9653026

Hewett, K.J.E. (2022). Youth gamers and their collaborative 21st-century leadership competencies. New directions for student leadership, 2022(174), 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20503

Kim, S., Raza, M., & Seidman, E. (2019). Improving 21st-century teaching skills: The key to effective 21st-century learners. Research in Comparative and International Education, 14(1), 99-117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745499919829214

Lombardi, M.M. (2007). Authentic learning for the 21st century: An overview. Educause Learning Initiative, 23(1), 240-241. Retrieved from https://library.educause.edu/resources/2007/1/authentic-learning-for-the-21st-century-an-overview

Louth, S. (2014). An investigation into the impact of traditional Indigenous games (TIG) on primary school students and their teachers [PhD Thesis]. University of Southern Queensland. Retrieved from https://research.usq.edu.au/item/q319x/an-investigation-into-the-impact-of-traditional-indigenous-games-tig-on-primary-school-students-and-their-teachers

Mahmud, M.M. & Wong, S.F. (2022). Digital age: The importance of 21st century skillls among the undergraduates. Frontiers in Education, 7, 250-284. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.950553

Meihua, Q. & Karen, R.C. (2016). Game-based Learning and 21st century skills: A review of recent research. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 50-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.023.

Partnership for 21st Century Skillls. (2009). P21 framework definitions document. Partnership for 21st Century Skills, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED519462.pdf

Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400828678

Ravenscroft, A., & Matheson, M. (2002). Developing and evaluating dialogue games for collaborative e-learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 18(1), 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0266-4909.2001.00215.x

Rezvani, A., Barrett, R. and Khosravi, P. (2019). Investigating the Relationships among Team Emotional Intelligence, Trust, Conflict and Team Performance. Team Perform. Management, 24(1/2), 120-137. https://doi.org/10.1108/TPM-03-2018-0019

Sardone, N.B. & Devlin-Scherer, R. (2010). Teacher Candidate Responses to Digital Games: 21st-Century Skillls Development. International Society for Technology in Education, 42(4),409–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2010.10782558

Sholihah, N.R., Sapriya, S. Supriatna, S., Supriatna, N. & Komalasari, K. (2020). Traditional Game-Based Learning: as a Local Wisdom Learning Model in Elementary School. Multicultural Education, 6(5), 182-186. Retrieved from http://ijdri.com/me/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/19.pdf

Shute, V.J., Emihovich, B. (2018). Assessing Problem-Solving Skillls in Game-Based Immersive Environments. In: Voogt, J., Knezek, G., Christensen, R., Lai, KW. (Eds), Second Handbook of Information Technology in Primary and Secondary Education (pp 635-648). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71054-9_40

Smith, B. (2012). Traditional games of New Zealand children. Folklore, 64(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/0015587X.1953.9717380

Tchombe, T.M.S. (2023). Resilient cultural practices for cognitive development during childhood within learning pathways with support from mediated mutual reciprocal theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 13,1-17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.994156

Vygotsky, L.S. (1987). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky Vol. 1. In R.W. Rieber & A.S. Carton, (Eds.). Problems of general psychology, Plenum Press.

Yalçın, V. (2024). Design-Oriented Thinking in STEM education. Sci & Educ, 33, 901–922. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-022-00410-7

Zainuddin, K., Siswanti, D.N. and Anugrah, P.D. (2020). The Influence of Traditional Games Akkasing to Interpersonal Competence of Peers Group for Elementary School Children. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 481, 35-39. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.201027.007